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1. Inappropriate sampling frame: - a biased representation of the universe, it will result in a systematic bias.
2. Defective measuring device: -if constantly in error, results in systematic bias which may result from a bias in the questionnaire or the interviewer. Similarly, if the physical measuring device is defective there will be systematic bias in the data collected through such a measuring device.
3. Non-respondents: If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially included in the sample, there may arise a systematic bias. The reason is that in such a situation the likelihood of establishing contact or receiving a response from an individual is often correlated with the measure of what is to be estimated.
4. Indeterminacy principle: Sometimes we find that individuals act differently when kept under observation than what they do when kept in non-observed situations. For instance, if workers are aware that somebody is observing them in the course of a work study on the basis of which the average length of time to complete a task will be determined and accordingly the quota will be set for piece work, they generally tend to work slowly in comparison to the speed with which they work if kept unobserved.
5. Natural bias in the reporting of data: Natural bias of respondents in the reporting of data is often the cause of a systematic bias in many inquiries. There is usually a downward bias in the income data collected by government taxation department, whereas we find an upward bias in the income data collected by some social organisation. People in general understate their incomes if asked about it for tax purposes, but they overstate the same if asked for social status or their affluence.
6. Generally in psychological surveys, people tend to give what they think is the ‘correct’ answer rather than revealing their true feelings.
Kavungya answered the question on March 7, 2019 at 07:53
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